Volume 17 Winter 2006 Issue No. 3
In This Issue:
Heroes of Today
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RESOURCE GUIDE
Historical Trauma and Post-Colonial Stress in American Indian Populations
by Dr. Maria Yellow Horse Brave Heart and Tina Deschenie
Recent studies on historic and multigenerational trauma among Native people have assisted individuals and communities in dealing with the continuing after effects. Following in the footsteps of Native American elders and activists, social workers, mental health professionals, and scholars are seeking to revitalize cultural traditions to combat problems of alcoholism, drug abuse, suicide, and mental illness -- all symptoms of historical trauma. Resources in this guide include relevant studies, websites, and a video. They provide information for students researching this topic, anyone interested in the healing process, and practitioners in the field.
BOOKS
Brave Heart, M.Y.H. (2004). The historical t rauma response among Natives and its relationship to substance abuse: A Lakota illustration. In E. Nebelkopf & M. Phillips (Eds.), Healing and mental health for Native Americans: Speaking in red (pp. 7-18). Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press.
This chapter explains historical trauma theory and the historical trauma response. Includes ways to incorporate the theory in treatment, research, and evaluation and concludes with implications for all massively traumatized populations.
Brave Heart, M.Y.H. (2001). Clinical assessment with American Indians. In R.Fong & S. Furuto (Eds.), Cultural competent social work practice: Practice skills, interventions, and evaluation (pp. 163-177). Reading, MA: Longman Publishers.
This chapter includes information about incorporating historical trauma theory in assessment.
Brave Heart, M.Y.H. (2001) Clinical interventions with American Indians. In R. Fong & S. Furuto (Eds.), Cultural competent social work practice: Practice skills, interventions, and evaluation (pp. 285-298). Reading, MA: Longman Publishers.
This chapter includes information about incorporating historical trauma theory in interventions.
Duran, E., Duran, B., Brave Heart, M.Y.H., & Yellow Horse, S.D. (1998). Healing the American Indian soul wound. In D. Yael (Ed.), International handbook of multigenerational legacies of trauma (pp. 341-354). NY: Plenum Press.
In this chapter, the authors propose the concept of historical trauma and soul wound. Topics discussed include historical legacy, survivor syndrome/survivor’s child complex, chronic and acute reactions to colonialism, and healing.
Gagné, Marie-Anik (1998). The role of dependency and colonialism in generating trauma in First Nations citizens: The James Bay Cree. In D. Yael (Ed.), International handbook of multigenerational legacies of trauma (pp. 355-372). NY: Plenum Press.
This chapter focuses on the intergenerational effects of colonization trauma and examines the process of transmitting this trauma among the Cree of James Bay in Canada.
Robin, R.W., Chester, B., and Goldman, D. (1996). Cumulative trauma and PTSD in American Indian communities. In A. Marsella, M.J. Friedman, E.T. Gerrity, & R.M. Scurfield (Eds.), Ethnocultural aspects of post-traumatic stress disorder: Issues, research, and clinical applications (pp. 239-253). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
This chapter summarizes what is known about the prevalence of psychopathology and multiple psychiatric disorders among American Indians . The current definition of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) fails to describe the impact of severe, multiple, and cumulative trauma among American Indians. They suggest other frameworks for conceptualizing the experience.
Tafoya, N. & Del Vecchio, A. (1996). Back to the future: An examination of the Native American holocaust experience. In M. McGoldrick & J. Giordano (Eds.), Ethnicity and family therapy (2 nd Ed., pp. 45-54). NY: Guilford Press.
This chapter asserts that mental health professionals must be aware of the multigenerational disruption of positive development that results from 500 years of historical trauma for Native Americans as well as the persistent destructiveness of oppression and racism. Clinicians need to educate clients about historic trauma and support them through the process of grieving personal and tribal losses of language, tradition, and religion.
DISSERTATIONS
Abadian, S. (2000). From wasteland to homeland: Trauma and the renewal of indigenous peoples and their communities. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities & Social Sciences, 60(7-A), 2591.
This study suggests that unresolved or poorly resolved individual and collective trauma help explain present-day conditions in many indigenous communities. T rauma is likely to be replicated. A set of interventions employed by increasing numbers of aboriginal communities in various guises, described as “culture as treatment,” are effective to counter traumatically-induced social pathologies.
Ball, T. J. (1999). Prevalence rates of full and partial PTSD and lifetime trauma in a sample of adult members of an American Indian tribe. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities & Social Sciences, 60(2-A), 0387.
This study assessed the prevalence rates of lifetime trauma and PTSD among American Indian adults as well as the impact of the 1950s era federal policy of termination. The research incorporated an historical perspective, and Termination Trauma was assessed. The results validated the theory that the prevalence rates of lifetime trauma and PTSD were higher in the adult population of American Indians studied. In addition, the concept of Post-Colonial Stress Disorder was supported.
Brave Heart-Jordan, M.Y.H. (1995). The return to the sacred path: Healing from historical trauma and historical unresolved grief among the Lakota. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities & Social Sciences, 56(9-A), 3742.
This was the first study to develop and define historical trauma theory and address historical unresolved grief associated with the Wounded Knee Massacre and the forced removal of Lakota children to boarding schools. This study examined the effectiveness of a 4-day group intervention. The results of this quasi-experimental study confirmed positive responses. An extensive literature review includes relevant Jewish Holocaust citations as well as other trauma literature. Copies can be ordered from the Takini Network, TakiniNet@aol.com.
Cashin, J. (2001). Trauma and multigenerational trauma caused by genocide and oppression: A comparison of Western and Native American healing methods. Dissertation Abstracts International Section B: The Sciences & Engineering, 61(12-B), 6758.
This dissertation examines multigenerational trauma that is caused by genocide and oppression. The literature reviewed covers multigenerational trauma , biological origins of traumatic states, trauma transmission, and healing/therapeutic methods including body-centered therapy, Hakomi, and EMDR (Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing).
Whelshula, M. M. (2000). Healing through decolonization: A study in the deconstruction of the Western scientific paradigm and the process of re-tribalizing among Native Americans . Dissertation Abstracts International Section B: The Sciences & Engineering, 60(7-B), 3624.
This study examined colonization and development of a decolonization healing practice. A description of the Colville Tribes’ brutal colonization is included. The accounts of the colonization are examined through a psychological study of the victims’ trauma . This study explores the importance of re-tribalizing through recovering the cosmology and traditional knowledge of indigenous cultures.
ARTICLES
Brave Heart, M.Y.H. (1998). The return to the sacred path: Healing the historical trauma response among the Lakota. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 68(3), 287-305.
This was the first journal publication on the historical trauma intervention and theory.
Brave Heart, M.Y.H. (1999). Oyate Ptayela: Rebuilding the Lakota nation through addressing historical trauma among Lakota parents. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 2(1-2), 109-126 and in H. Weaver (Ed.), Voices of First Nations People: Considerations for human services. New York: Haworth Press.
This qualitative study examined a Lakota parenting curriculum addressing historical trauma and its impact upon parenting. Results show that parents experienced the curriculum as effective, particularly the focus on both historical trauma and the reconnection with traditional Lakota values
Brave Heart, M.Y.H. (1999) Gender differences in the historical trauma response among the Lakota. Journal of Health and Social Policy, 10(4), 1-21.
This study addresses gender issues.
Manson, S. M., Beals, J., & Klein, S. A. (2005). Social epidemiology of t rauma among two A merican Indian reservation populations. American Journal of Public Health,95(5), 851-859.
This study examined the high prevalence of trauma in two large American Indian communities. The Indians’ lifetime exposure rates to at least one trauma were 62.4%-67.2% among male participants and 66.2%-69.8% among female participants. Members of both tribes more often witnessed traumatic events, experienced traumas to loved ones, and were victims of physical attacks than their counterparts in the overall U.S. population.
Struthers, R., & Lowe, J. (2003). Nursing in the Native American culture and historical trauma . Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 24(3), 257-272.
Historical trauma affects both health status and social milieu. To heal historical trauma , culturally appropriate strategies are needed. When encountering historical trauma, mental health care providers can use the Conceptual Framework of Nursing in the Native American Culture.
Walters, K. L. & Simoni, J. M. (2002). Re-conceptualizing Native women’s health: An “indigenist” stress-coping model. American Journal of Public Health, 92(4), 520-524.
This commentary presents an “indigenist” model of Native women’s health, a stress-coping paradigm that situates Native women’s health within the larger context of their colonization. Traumas and life stressors (such as the “soul wound” of historical and contemporary discrimination among Native women) influence health and mental health outcomes.
Whitbeck, L. B., Adams, G. W., & Hoyt, D. R. (2004). Conceptualizing and measuring historical trauma among American Indian people. American Journal of Community Psychology, 33(3-4), 119-130.
This article reports on the development of two measures relating to historical trauma : The Historical Loss Scale and The Historical Loss Associated Symptoms Scale. Frequencies indicate that the current generation of American Indian adults have frequent thoughts pertaining to historical losses and that they associate these losses with negative feelings. Two factors of the Historical Loss Associated Symptoms Scale indicate one anxiety/depression component and one anger/avoidance component. The results are discussed in terms of future research and theory pertaining to historical trauma among American Indian people.
ORGANIZATIONS
Takini Network, Inc.
This is an American Indian non-profit organization founded in 1992 to help Native peoples heal from historical trauma through community education, training, and research. The mission includes improving the quality of life for American Indian children, youth, and families as well as future generations, through improving parenting and coping skills and healing boarding school trauma. The Takini Network seeks to restore Native communities and move beyond survival to empowering the People. Takini is a Lakota word for survivor and for one who has been brought back to life. Contact: takininet@aol.com or (303) 759-0975.
White Bison, Inc. offers sobriety, recovery, addictions prevention, and wellness/ “wellbriety” learning resources to the Native American community nationwide. White Bison's mission is to assist in bringing 100 Native American communities into healing by 2010. The site provides information on wellbriety services, an online magazine, products, and links to other organizations. Contact: info@whitebison.org, (719) 548-1000.
Four Worlds Centre for Development Learning was formed by aboriginal elders and community leaders on the Blood Indian Reservation in Alberta, Canada, in search of a solution to the social devastation brought on by alcohol, poverty, and an increasing sense of powerlessness. The organization is part of an international network that assists communities in health, education and training, and community development. The site provides information on services, publications, and links to other organizations. Contact: anyone@fourworlds.ca, (403) 932-0882.
VIDEOS
Celebration of Survival: The Takini Network (2002). Videographed by Gemma Lockhart, produced by Takini Network.
This 25-minute video defines historical trauma and describes the historical trauma healing work of the Takini Network and the first international historical trauma healing conference in 2001. A limited number of copies are available through TakiniNnet@aol.com.
Jidwá:doh Let’s Become Again (2005). Directed by Dr. Dawn Martin-Hill (Mohawk), produced by the Indigenous Studies Programme at McMaster University, National Aboriginal Health Organization, and the Indigenous Health Research Development Program.
This documentary highlights the International Indigenous Elders Summit, hosted at Six Nations, Ontario, Canada, in 2004. The elders speak about their understanding of historical trauma and about healing collectively using indigenous knowledge and traditional practices. Youths chronicle their perspectives. The film includes the Unity Ride, a 2200 kilometer ride and run. To order, call (519) 445-4714, email alidarnay@yahoo.ca, or go to www.ihrdp.ca.
Healing the Hurts, ISBN 1-896905-41-2, produced by Four Worlds Centre for Development Learning.
This 60-minute video documents the devastating effects of the boarding schools that shattered aboriginal culture, children, families, and communities throughout North America. Viewers join Native participants from Canada and the United States during a 4-day, culturally-based healing process for understanding and recovering from this type of traumatic experience. It can be ordered from http://fourworlds.ca/ or call (403) 932-0882.
Dr. Maria Yellow Horse Brave Heart (Oglala and Hunkpapa Lakota) is the founder and director of the Takini Network, which is the only national organization focusing on historical trauma treatment and therapy. Tina Deschenie (Diné) is a language activist, poet, and frequent contributor to Tribal College Journal.
Editor’s note: Because of the importance of this topic, we welcome any additional resources that readers would like to share. Send them or any comments about the issue to editor@tribalcollegejournal.org. Submitted references will be included in the Resource Guide section for Vol. 17, N.3 on the TCJ website.