VOLUME IX FALL 1997 NUMBER 2

Photo by Ken Blackbird. Photo at Fort Belknap Reservation

American Indian Culture and Curriculum: A Guide to Literature
American Indian Culture and Curriculum: An Annotated Bibliography

by Dr. Mary Hermes

Located within the recent scholarship in Indian Education, this brief annotated bibliography concentrates on the subject broadly referred to as "culture and curriculum." If culture is understood as the collective values, practices, and will of a people, then cultural practices in Indian education can only be understood as acts of self-determination. For this reason, I have not considered pieces that use culture as a means to an end, but rather I have actively sought out work in which culture provides the foundations for educational practices.

Eight categories guided my search: 1) discussion/ theory/ best practices, 2) socio-linguistic approaches, 3) philosophy/ world view, 4) rationale for, 5) oral history, 6) higher education, 7) math and science, and 8) language revitalization. Due to space limitations, only three categories were included in this article. The rest may be accessed through the Tribal College Journal internet site www.fdl.cc.mn.us/tcj

Although by no means comprehensive, this research represents some of the cutting edge discussions around the topic of Native culture and education. Abstracts were located mostly by using computerized database subject area searches of ERIC (Educational Resources and Information Center.) 

DISCUSSION/ THEORY/ BEST PRACTICES

Henze, R. and L. Vanett (1993). To walk in two worlds-- or more? Challenging a common metaphor of Native education. Anthropology and Education Quarterly 24(2), 116-134.

This article critically examines the metaphor "walking in two worlds" and the influence it has had in culture and education. Through analysis of five assumptions, Henze and Vanett argue that not only is the metaphor overly simplistic, it often limits our collective imagination, creating a dualistic and fatalistic choice for Native American students. 

Hermes, M. (1995). Making culture, making curriculum: Teaching through meanings and identities at an American Indian tribal school. Unpublished dissertation. University of Wisconsin, Madison. Available from the University of Ann Arbor, microfiche collection.

Research at a tribal school (Ojibwe, Great Lakes area) that generates theory from practices at school. Also critically considers the role of community, especially elders, in light of the context of colonization. Uses research project as a vehicle for community building at the site of the school.

Lipka, J. (1989). A cautionary tale for curriculum development in Yup'ik Eskimo communities. Anthropology and Education Quarterly 20(3), 216-231.

The school should follow the communities' lead in developing culture-based curriculum. In this article Lipka describes a project based at the University of Alaska that attempted to follow the direction set by community members. Theorizing positions of power, he describes this approach as "action-research," rooted in principles of self-determination. Article also touches on the question of "outsiders" in teaching and/or facilitating culture-based curriculum.

Lipka, J and E. Ilustsik (1995). Negotiated change: Yup'ik perspectives on indigenous schooling. The Bilingual Research Journal 19(1), 195-207.

Discusses five geographical diverse Native American schooling sites and their particular attempts to make schools hubs of language and culture revitalization. Argues that changing the relationships of power and domination is an integral part of, and a logical direction for, culture-based curriculum. Vivid description of a Yup'ik literacy program that was inspired by "suguaq" or playing dolls. 

McCaskill, D. (1987). Revitalization of Indian culture: Indian cultural survival schools. In Indian Education in Canada. Vol. 2, The Challenge, 153-179. Edited by J. Barman, Y. Herber, and D. McCaskill. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.

Indian control over education has been a part of the dialogue for over 15 years, yet it is still an urgent task for our survival as distinct people. One vision for education requires a fundamental change in definition and philosophy, one which is based on a traditional idea of nurturing the mind, body, and spirit of a person. The issues of self-determined education are discussed as a part of the "revitalization" of Native culture. Understanding how to implement Native culture into education necessitates an understanding of what "Native culture" is--especially in light of narrow definitions and stereotypes that abound. 

Urion, C. (1991). Changing academic discourse about Native education: using two pairs of eyes. Canadian Journal of Native Education 18(1), 1-9. 

In this editorial, Urion presents a sweeping critique of current academic discourse around Indian education. He points out that a persistent underlying assumption in the field has been acculturation. Much past work on Native culture and education has essentialized culture and only acts to reaffirm the impression of stereotypes. In contrast, he believes that a traditional discourse of learning was based on constantly changing relationships that create and recreate the discourse anew in every relationship and encounter. Excellent critique of cultural determinism. 

ORAL TRADITIONS

Archibald J. (1990). Coyote's story about orality and literacy. Canadian Journal of Indian Education 17(2), 66-81. 

Discusses the origins of the Western literary tradition (Plato) and the accompanying purge of emotions. First Nations oral traditions encompass certain forms of thinking and creativity that are limited or non-existent in literary traditions. Considers ways indigenous peoples can "bridge the dichotomy" and value both literate and oral traditions through educational practices.

Sheridan, J. (1991). The silence before drowning in alphabet soup. Canadian Journal of Indian Education 18(1), 23-31. 

Without reducing Western cultures to literate and Native cultures to oral, Sheridan is able to discuss and compare "oral" and "literate" cultures as these distinctions relate to history and legitimacy. He argues that literacy is prioritized in schooling in ways that compete against, dominate, dis-place and de-legitimize oral traditions and life experience. As the mediated world (literate) is mistaken for the real world, respect for traditions is easily overlooked.

Ambler, M. (1995). History in the first person. Tribal College Journal 6(4), 9-14.

Documents some of the ways in which oral traditions have been used by scholars since the 1960s and are currently gaining legitimacy in academia. Discusses how oral histories are breathing life into museum projects and creating another form of representation for the Native perspective. Different standards and values emerge from the oral histories approach, for example, relationship and spirituality as opposed to objectivity and accuracy.

MATH & SCIENCE

Nelson-Barber, S. and E. Estrin (1995) Bringing Native American perspectives to mathematics and science teaching. Theory into Practice 34 (3), 174-185.

In this article Nelson-Barber and Estrin discuss how ethno-mathematics and ethno-science practices are based on intuitive knowledge and are essential elements of understanding more abstract and formal kinds of math and science. Further, ethno-math or ethno-science must be approached in the classroom in ways that are connected to that particular community (rather than appropriated) in order to facilitate deep understanding of the disciplines and engender intrinsic motivation. 

OTHER REVIEWS OR SPECIAL EDITIONS

Deyhle, D. and Swisher, K. (1997). Research in American Indian and Alaska Native education: from assimilation to self-determination. In M.W. Apple (Ed.), Review of Research in Education (pp. 113-194). Washington DC: American Educational Research Association. 

Lipka, J. and Staris, A. (1994). Negotiating the culture of indigenous schools [Special issue] Peabody Journal of Education 69. 

McCarty, T.L. and Zepeda. O. (1995). Indigenous language education and literacy [Special issues]. Bilingual Research Journal 19 (1). 

Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Culturally relevant teaching. [Special issue]. Theory into Practice 34 (3).

About the author: Mary "Fong" Hermes currently teaches at Carleton College in Northfield, Minn. She has a doctorate in curriculum and instruction from the University of Wisconsin in Madison. She received research assistance from Laura Stokes.

American Indian Culture and Curriculum: Part II

Compiled by Mary Hermes and Susan Gahan

Socio-linguistic

Mohatt, G. and Frederick Erikson. (1981). Cultural differences in teaching styles in an Odawa school: A sociolinguistic approach. In H. Trueba, G. Guthrie and K. Au (Eds.), Culture and the bilingual classroom (pp. 105-119). Rowley, Ma: Newbury House Publishers, Inc.

Contrary to some, Mohatt and Erikson argue that if language dies, the culture still plays an important part in teaching and learning. Two teachers' classrooms are observed and documented in terms of pace and social control. They argue that many of the noted difference in teaching (eg. tempo and directiveness) and learning should be attributed to cultural difference, not individual difference. Builds on cultural continuity theory. A classic in the literature.

Greenbaum, P. and Greenbaum, S. (1996) .Cultural differences, nonverbal regulation and clasroom interaction: socio-linguistic interference in American Indian education. Peabody Journal of Education (pp. )

Drawing on the socio-liguistic research of the past 30 years, this article asks two basic and valuable questions: Does non-verbal communication cause of effect cross cultural conflict in the classroom? and what specifically are the differences in Native and White non-verbal communication across tribes? They conclude that evidence from both qualitative and quantitative studies shows that " Indian students are quieter...gaze less during conversations, and are more group oriented than their Anglo peers. " They explain White - Native miscommunication as inadvertent and due in part to these invisible communication differences. However, they also entertain the notions of intention, resistance and cultural conflict as deeper explanations of conflict and ultimately failure of Native students.

Development

Joe, J. (1994). Revaluating Native American concepts of development and education. In P. Greenfield and R. Cocking, eds., Cross-cultural roots of minority child dvelopment. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

In this straightforward article the author critiques existing research on minority child development as limiting and often resulting in stereotypes, or "deficits" as compared with Anglo children. She challenges underlying assumptions that "outside" researchers often make, focusing on negative behavior as abstracted from the entire cultural context. She suggests new approaches to research, calling for more Native sponsored work. In addition to much of this research being one-sided, Joe believes more attention should be given to individual difference in levels of acculturation.

Rationale - Drop outs & prejudice

Dehyle, D. (1995) Navajo youth and Anglo reacism: Cultural integrity and resistance. Harvard Educational Review, vol. 65, 403-444.

Through a ten year study Deyhle is able to present an in-depth examination of the obstacles Navajo youth experience in school and upon graduation. She critiques the school for pushing Native American students into vocational programs and not encouraging students to pursue higher education. She discusses the various ways in which the schools dismiss Navajo culture and marginalize students because of their beliefs. Through her case studies and intimate knowledge of tribal communities, she is able to construct a detailed picture of the struggles Navajo youth encounter in the schools.

Locust, C. (1988) Wounding the spirit: Discrimination and traditional American Indian belief systems. Harvard Educational Review, vol. 58, 103-117.

This article describes discrimination in public schools against Native American students as often a Spiritual issue, as a violation of rights which should be protected under the American Indian Religious Freedom Act (PL 95-3241). Locust examines ten central beliefs and describes how they conflict with mainstream education as it exists now. She discusses issues of difference in terms of perceptions of the seasons, communication and concepts of wellness.

Language revitalization

Begay, S., McCarty, T. and Afton S. (1995) Change from the inside out: a story of transformation in a navajo community school, in The Bilingual Research Journal, vol. 19, no. 1, pp121-139.

This article is one taken from a special issue on indigenous language and literacy; this issue contains many interesting articles. This particular one is a case study of the Rough Rock demonstration school, focusing on the collaborative effort of Bi-lingual teachers, administrators and researchers to develop a K-3 Rough Rock English-Navajo language arts program (RRENLAP) which was both culturally relevant in content and pedagogy. Special attention is given to the process, i.e., the change in power relations, that needed to occur in the school-community before sustainable and meaningful changes could be introduced in the school. Alternative assessment is also described at length.